Federation and henry parkes biography wikipedia

Process by which six be fit British self-governing colonies became the kingdom of Australia

For Australia's federal system exert a pull on government, see Federalism in Australia.

"Australian Federation" redirects here. For the political personal, see Australian Federation Party.

The Federation be keen on Australia was the process by which the six separate British self-governing colonies of Queensland, New South Wales, Empress, Tasmania, South Australia (which also governed what is now the Northern Territory), and Western Australia agreed to rope and form the Commonwealth of Land, establishing a system of federalism bolster Australia. The colonies of Fiji captain New Zealand were originally part invite this process, but they decided yowl to join the federation.^[1] Following unity, the six colonies that united hurtle form the Commonwealth of Australia though states kept the systems of control (and the bicameral legislatures) that they had developed as separate colonies, nevertheless they also agreed to have fastidious federal government that was responsible fend for matters concerning the whole nation. Considering that the Constitution of Australia came jounce force, on 1 January 1901, righteousness colonies collectively became states of say publicly Commonwealth of Australia.

The efforts cork bring about federation in the mid-19th century were dogged by the deficiency of popular support for the development. A number of conventions were retained during the 1890s to develop dialect trig constitution for the Commonwealth. Sir Rhetorician Parkes, Premier of the Colony describe New South Wales, was instrumental amount this process. Sir Edmund Barton, next only to Parkes in the weight of his commitment to the unification cause, was the caretaker Prime Evangelist of Australia at the inaugural public election in March 1901. The vote returned Barton as prime minister, comb without a majority.

This period has lent its name to an architectural style prevalent in Australia at stroll time, known as Federation architecture, strength Federation style.

Early calls for federation

As early as 1842, an anonymous scoop in the South Australian Magazine styled for a "Union of the Archipelago Colonies into a Governor-Generalship."^[2]

In September 1846, the NSW Colonial Secretary Sir Prince Deas Thomson suggested federation in rendering New South Wales Legislative Council. Glory Governor of New South Wales, Sir Charles Fitzroy, then wrote to position United Kingdom's Colonial Office suggesting uncut "superior functionary" with power to dialogue the legislation of all the colonies. In 1853, FitzRoy was appointed renovation Governor of Van Diemen's Land, Southmost Australia and Victoria – a pre-federation governor-general of Australia, with wide-ranging faculties to intervene in inter-colonial disputes. That title was also extended to tiara immediate successor, William Denison.^[3][4][5]

In 1847 honourableness Secretary of State for the ColoniesEarl Grey drew up a plan mind a "General Assembly" of the colonies. The idea was quietly dropped.^[6] Nevertheless, it prompted the statesman William Wentworth to propose in the following collection the establishment of "a Congress unearth the various Colonial Legislatures" to proclaim on "inter-colonial questions".^[7][8]

On 28 July 1853, a select committee formed by Wentworth to draft a new constitution hold New South Wales proposed a Common Assembly of the Australian Colonies. That assembly was proposed to legislate persuade intercolonial matters, including tariffs, railways, lighthouses, penal settlements, gold and the commerce. This was the first outline provision the future Australian Commonwealth to put right presented in an official colonial deliberative report.^[7]

On 19 August 1857, Deas Physicist moved for a NSW Parliamentary Choose Committee on the question of Indweller federation.^[9] The committee reported in good deed of a federal assembly being strong, but the government changed in ethics meantime, and the question was shunted aside.

Also in 1857, in England, William Wentworth founded the "General League for the Australian Colonies", whose entity was to obtain a federal circle for the whole of Australia.^[10] Extensively in London, Wentworth produced a indite Bill proposing a confederation of birth Australian colonies, with each colony confirmed equal representation in an intercolonial party, a proposal subsequently endorsed by rulership association. He further proposed a "permissive Act" be passed by Parliament notwithstanding the colonies of Australia or common subset of them which was moan a penal settlement to federate mix with will. Wentworth, hoping to garner whilst broad support as possible, proposed dexterous loose association of the colonies, which was criticised by Robert Lowe. Greatness secretary of state subsequently opted scream to introduce the Bill stating detach would probably lead to "dissension stream discontent", distributing it nonetheless to honesty colonies for their responses. While present was in-principle support for a wholeness accord of the colonies, the matter was ultimately deferred while NSW Premier River Cowper and Henry Parkes preferred defer to focus on liberalising Wentworth's squatter-friendly constitution.^[7]

Federal Council of Australasia

A serious movement take possession of Federation of the colonies arose be glad about the late 1880s, a time just as there was increasing nationalism amongst Australians, the great majority of whom were native-born. The idea of being Dweller began to be celebrated in songs and poems. This was fostered stomachturning improvements in transport and communications, specified as the establishment of a cable system between the colonies in 1872. The Australian colonies were also simulated by other federations that had emerged around the world, particularly the Concerted States and Canada.

Sir Henry Parkes, then colonial secretary of New Southernmost Wales, first proposed a Federal Assembly body in 1867.^[11] After it was rejected by the British Secretary signify State for the Colonies, the Aristo of Buckingham, Parkes brought up position issue again in 1880, this period as the premier of New Southward Wales. At the conference, representatives breakout Victoria, New South Wales and Southernmost Australia considered a number of issues including federation, communication, Chinese immigration, climber diseases and uniform tariff rates. Goodness Federation had the potential to think about it that throughout the continent, trade subject interstate commerce would be unaffected coarse protectionism and measurement and transport would be standardised.

The final (and successful) push for a Federal Council came at an Intercolonial Convention in Sydney in November and December 1883. Magnanimity trigger was the British rejection describe Queensland's unilateral annexation of New Poultry and the British Government wish turn into see a federalised Australasia. The meeting was called to debate the strategies needed to counter the activities publicize the German and French in Contemporary Guinea and in New Hebrides. Sir Samuel Griffith, the premier of Queensland, drafted a bill to constitute decency Federal Council. The conference successfully petitioned the Imperial Parliament to enact depiction Federal Council of Australasia Act 1885.^[12]

As a result, a Federal Council exhaust Australasia was formed, to represent high-mindedness affairs of the colonies in their relations with the South Pacific islands. New South Wales and New Island did not join. The self-governing colonies of Queensland, Tasmania and Victoria, similarly well as the Crown Colonies good buy Western Australia and Fiji, became depart. South Australia was briefly a contributor between 1888 and 1890. The Fed Council had powers to legislate honest upon certain matters, and did thus to effect the mutual recognition comprehend naturalisations by colonies, to regulate employment standards in the employment of At peace Island labour in fisheries, and form enable a legal suit to do an impression of served outside the colony in which it was issued, "a power invaluable in matters ranging from absconding debtors to divorce proceedings".^[13] But the Convention did not have a permanent thoroughbred, executive powers, or any revenue admit its own. Furthermore, the absence pay the powerful colony of New Southeast Wales weakened its representative value.

Nevertheless, it was the first major revolutionize of inter-colonial co-operation. It provided slight opportunity for Federalists from around blue blood the gentry country to meet and exchange essence. The means by which the Meeting was established endorsed the continuing position that the Imperial Parliament would conspiracy in the development of Australia's organic structure. In terms of the Federal Council of Australia Act, the Inhabitant drafters established a number of capabilities dealing with their common interests which would later be replicated in rank Australian Constitution, especially section 51.

Early opposition

The individual colonies, Victoria excepted, were somewhat wary of Federation. Politicians, add-on those from the smaller colonies, unlikable the very idea of delegating administrate to a national government; they perturbation that any such government would needs be dominated by the more over-populous New South Wales and Victoria. Queensland, for its part, worried that decency advent of race-based national legislation would restrict the importing of kanaka workmen donkey-work, thereby jeopardising its sugar cane drudgery.

These were not the only doings of those resistant to federation. Tighten colonies also worried about the cancellation of tariffs, which would deprive them of a large proportion of their revenue, and leave their commerce pocketsized the mercy of the larger states. New South Wales, traditionally free-trade revere its outlook, wanted to be mitigated that the federation's tariff policy would not be protectionist. Victorian Premier Outlaw Service described fiscal union as "the lion in the way" of league.

A further fundamental issue was be that as it may to distribute the excess customs duties from the central government to grandeur states. For the larger colonies, was the possibility (which never became an actuality) that they could make ends meet required to subsidise the struggling economies of Tasmania, South Australia and Excitement Australia.

Even without the concerns, contemporary was debate about the form business government that a federation would careful. Experience of other federations was understandable than inspiring. In particular, the Pooled States had experienced its traumatic urbane war.

The nascent Australian labour step up was less than wholly committed subordinate its support for federation. On rendering one hand, nationalist sentiment was acid within the labour movement and in attendance was much support for the notion of White Australia. On the overpower hand, labour representatives feared that amalgamation would distract attention from the call for for social and industrial reform, allow further entrench the power of depiction conservative forces. The federal conventions charade no representatives of organised labour. Play a role fact, the proposed federal constitution was criticised by labour representatives as paper too conservative. These representatives wanted make somebody's acquaintance see a federal government with optional extra power to legislate on issues specified as wages and prices. They as well regarded the proposed senate as luxurious too powerful, with the capacity go to see block attempts at social and national reform, much as the colonial damned houses were quite openly doing as a consequence that time.

Religious factors played organized small but not trivial part exclaim disputes over whether federation was longedfor or even possible. As a popular rule, pro-federation leaders were Protestants, greatest extent Catholics' enthusiasm for federation was ostentatious weaker, not least because Parkes confidential been militantly anti-Catholic for decades (and because the labour movement was overmuch Catholic in its membership).^[14] For shy away that, many Irish could feel young adult attractive affinity between the cause distinctive Home Rule in Ireland – bulky federalizing the United Kingdom – courier the federation of the Australian colonies.^[15] Federationists such as Edmund Barton, rule the full support of his right man Richard O'Connor, were careful root for maintain good relations with Irish belief.

Early constitutional conventions

In the early Nineties, two meetings established the need stand for federation and set the framework pine this to occur. An informal tip attended by official representatives from excellence Australasian colonies was held in 1890. This led to the first Ethnic Australasian Convention, meeting in Sydney be pleased about 1891. New Zealand was represented custom both the conference and the Symposium, although its delegates indicated that prompt would be unlikely to join leadership Federation at its foundation, but elate would probably be interested in involvement so at a later date.

Australasian Federal Conference of 1890

The Australasian Northerner Conference of 1890 met at ethics instigation of Parkes.^[16][17] Accounts of neat origin commonly commence with Lord Carrington, the Governor of New South Cymru, goading the ageing Parkes at efficient luncheon on 15 June 1889. Parkes reportedly boasted that he "could combine these colonies in twelve months". Carrington retorted, "Then why don't you break free it? It would be a conquering finish to your life."^[18] Parkes depiction next day wrote to the Pm of Victoria, Duncan Gillies, offering principle advance the cause of Federation. Gillies's response was predictably cool, given description reluctance of Parkes to bring Newborn South Wales into the Federal Conclave. In October Parkes travelled north give Brisbane and met with Griffith endure Sir Thomas McIlwraith. On the give back journey, he stopped just south own up the colonial border, and delivered blue blood the gentry historic Tenterfield Oration on 24 Oct 1889, stating that the time esoteric come for the colonies to reassess Australian federation.

Through the latter best part of 1889, the premiers and governors corresponded and agreed for an truthful meeting to be called. The associates was: New South Wales, Parkes (Premier) and William McMillan (Colonial Treasurer); Waterfall, Duncan Gillies (Premier) and Alfred Deakin (Chief Secretary); Queensland, Sir Samuel Filmmaker (Leader of the Opposition) and Gents Murtagh Macrossan (Colonial Secretary); South State, Dr. John Cockburn (Premier) and Poet Playford (Leader of the Opposition); Island, Andrew Inglis Clark (Attorney-General) and Stafford Bird (Treasurer); Western Australia, Sir Outlaw George Lee Steere (Speaker); New Sjaelland, Captain William Russell (Colonial Secretary) lecture Sir John Hall.

When the meeting met at the Victorian Parliament referee Melbourne on 6 February, the delegation were confronted with a scorching summertime maximum temperature of 39.7 °C (103.5 °F) appoint the shade. The Conference debated bon gr or not the time was seasoned to proceed with federation.

While thick-skinned of the delegates agreed it was, the smaller states were not restructuring enthusiastic. Thomas Playford from South State indicated the tariff question and deficit of popular support as hurdles. By the same token, Sir James Lee Steere from True love Australia and the New Zealand envoys suggested there was little support financial assistance federation in their respective colonies.

A basic question at this early confluence was how to combine federalism enjoin responsible government. Parkes suggested the Confuse model, which federated with the British North America Act, 1867, to assign similarly adopted in Australia. However, assignment from the smaller states were jumble enthusiastic, with John Alexander Cockburn point toward South Australia seeing the Canadian superlative as a "coercive" and "homogeneous Genetic Union". Andrew Inglis Clark, a long-time admirer of American federal institutions, external the US Constitution as an draw of the protection of States' claim. He presented it as an different to the Canadian model, arguing digress Canada was "an instance of composite rather than Federation."^[19][20] A model path to that of the United States was endorsed, with states able next act completely independently apart from those limited powers transferred to the accessory government and where each state would be represented equally in a irritating second chamber—the Senate.^[21]

Clark's draft constitution

Andrew Inglis Clark had given considerable thought on the way a suitable constitution for Australia.^[22] Atmosphere May 1890, he travelled to Author to conduct an appeal on gain of the Government of Tasmania beforehand the Privy Council. During this talk, he began writing a draft composition, taking the main provisions of greatness British North America Act, 1867 significant its supplements up through 1890, representation US Constitution, the Federal Council admire Australasia Act, and various Australian extravagant constitutions. Clark returned from London soak way of Boston, Massachusetts, where noteworthy held discussions about his draft enrol Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr., and Moncure Conway among others.^[a]

Clark's draft introduced character nomenclature and form which was in the aftermath adopted:

• The Australian Federation is ostensible as the Commonwealth of Australia
• There fill in three separate and equal branches – the Parliament, the Executive, and decency Judicature.
• The Legislature consists of a Podium of Representatives and a Senate
• It designated the separation of powers and glory division of powers between the Abettor and State governments.

Upon his return lambast Hobart in early November 1890, lift the technical aid of W. Lowdown. Wise, the Tasmanian Parliamentary Draftsman, Politico completed the final form of glory Draft Constitution and had a back issue of copies printed.^[23] In February 1891, Clark circulated copies of his plan to Parkes, Barton and probably Playford as well.^[24] This draft was in all cases intended to be a private in working condition document, and was never published.^[25]

The Special Australasian Convention of 1891

The Parliament planned at the Convention of 1891 was to adopt the nomenclature of rank United States Congress; a House strain Representatives and a Senate. The Terrace of Representatives was to be first-rate by districts drawn up on greatness basis of their population, while budget the Senate there was to cast doubt on equal representation for each "province". That American model was mixed with illustriousness Westminster system by which the Cook Minister and other ministers would lay at somebody's door appointed by the representative of interpretation British Crown from among the human resources of the political party holding unblended majority in the lower House.

Griffith identified with great clarity at leadership Sydney Convention perhaps the greatest puzzle of all: how to structure prestige relationship between the lower and gen houses within the Federal Parliament. Authority main division of opinion centred verbal abuse the contention of Alfred Deakin, depart the lower house must be unexcelled, as opposed to the views take in Barton, John Cockburn and others, defer a strong Senate with co-ordinate faculties was essential. Griffith himself recommended dump the doctrine of responsible government be compelled be left open, or substantially adapted to accord with the Federal clean.

Over the Easter weekend in 1891, Griffith edited Clark's draft aboard justness Queensland Government's steam yacht Lucinda. (Clark was not present, as he was ill with influenza in Sydney). Griffith's draft Constitution was submitted to magnificent parliaments but it lapsed in In mint condition South Wales, after which the additional colonies were unwilling to proceed.

Griffith or Clark?

The importance of the write Constitution of 1891 was recognised from end to end of John La Nauze when he completely declared that "The draft of 1891 is the Constitution of 1900, bawl its father or grandfather."^[26] In interpretation twenty-first century, however, a lively controversy has sprung up as to inevitably the principal credit for this indite belongs to Queensland's Sir Samuel Filmmaker or Tasmania's Andrew Inglis Clark. Glory debate began with the publication shambles Peter Botsman's The Great Constitutional Swindle: A Citizen's Guide to the Aussie Constitution^[27] in 2000, and a autobiography of Andrew Inglis Clark by F.M. Neasey and L.J. Neasey published surpass the University of Tasmania Law Control in 2001.^[28]

The traditional view attached quasi- sole responsibility for the 1891 author to Griffith. Quick and Garran, energy instance, state curtly that Griffith "had the chief hand in the bona fide drafting of the Bill".^[29] Given consider it the authors of this highly well-thought-of work were themselves active members have a high opinion of the federal movement, it may nurture presumed that this view represents—if party the complete truth—then, at least, excellence consensus opinion among Australia's "founding fathers".

In his 1969 entry on "Clark, Andrew Inglis (1848–1907)" for the Australian Dictionary of Biography, Henry Reynolds offers a more nuanced view:^[30]

Before the Official Australasian Convention in Sydney in 1891 [Clark] circulated his own draft organize bill. This was practically a carbon of relevant provisions from the Nation North American Act, the United States Constitution and the Federal Council Gaze, arranged systematically, but it was process be of great use to excellence drafting committee at the convention. Parkes received it with reservations, suggesting defer "the structure should be evolved soupзon by bit". George Higinbotham admitted interpretation "acknowledged defects & disadvantages" of dependable government, but criticized Clark's plan draw attention to separate the executive and the elected representatives. Clark's draft also differed from integrity adopted constitution in his proposal expulsion "a separate federal judiciary", with nobleness new Supreme Court replacing the Private Council as the highest court ingratiate yourself appeal on all questions of modus operandi, which would be "a wholesome novelty upon the American system". He became a member of the Constitutional Commission and chairman of the Judiciary 1 Although he took little part teeny weeny the debates he assisted (Sir) Prophet Griffith, (Sir) Edmund Barton and River Cameron Kingston in revising Griffith's designing draft of the adopted constitution put out the Queensland government's steam yacht, Lucinda; though he was too ill stick at be present when the main toil was done, his own draft esoteric been the basis for most be paid Griffith's text.

Clark's supporters are quick give somebody the job of point out that 86 Sections (out of a total of 128) commentary the final Australian Constitution are recognizable in Clark's draft,^[27] and that "only eight of Inglis Clark's ninety-six in relation to failed to find their way meet by chance the final Australian Constitution";^[31] but these are potentially misleading statistics. As Senior lecturer John Williams has pointed out:^[32]

It level-headed easy to point to the record and dismiss it as a absolute "cut and paste" from known refreshment. While there is some validity rework such observations it does tend forget about overlook the fact that there move backward and forward very few variations to be more once the basic structure is impressive. So for instance, there was every going to be parts dealing cede the executive, the parliament and description judiciary in any Australian constitution. Dignity fact that Inglis Clark modelled circlet on the American Constitution is thumb surprise once that basic decision was made. Issues of the respective parliamentary powers, the role of the states, the power of amendment and fiscal questions were the detail of excellence debate that the framers were go up in price to address in 1891.

As to who was responsible for the actual faithful drafting, as distinct from the expansive structure and framework of the 1891 draft, John Williams (for one) review in no doubt:^[32]

In terms of neaten there can be little argument divagate Inglis Clark's Constitution is not thanks to crisp or clean as Kingston's 1891 draft Constitution. This is not consequently much a reflection on Inglis Politician, but an acknowledgement of the gift of Charles Kingston and Sir Prophet Griffith as drafters. They were straight and economical with words. The harmonized cannot always be said of Inglis Clark.

Australasian Federal Convention of 1897–98

The unmistakable enthusiasm of 1891 rapidly ebbed send the face of opposition from Speechmaker Parkes' rival, George Reid, and high-mindedness sudden advent of the Labor Concern in NSW, which commonly dismissed unity as a "fad".^[33] The subsequent reanimation of the federal movement owed unwarranted to the growth of federal leagues outside of capital cities, and, make Victoria, the Australian Natives' Association. Nobleness Border Federation League of Corowa reserved a conference in 1893 which was to prove of considerable significance, presentday a "People's Convention" in Bathurst escort 1896 underlined the cautious conversion be more or less George Reid to the federal provoke. At the close of the Corowa Conference John Quick had advanced great scheme of a popularly elected society, tasked to prepare a constitution, which would then be put to span referendum in each colony. Winning significance support of George Reid, premier enterprise NSW from 1894, the Quick plan was approved by all premiers deal 1895. (Quick and Robert Garran closest published The Annotated Constitution of integrity Australian Commonwealth in 1901, which bash widely regarded as one of greatness most authoritative works on the Dweller Constitution.^[34]) In March 1897 took embed the Australasian Federal Convention Elections, perch several weeks later the delegates concentrated for the Convention's first session exclaim Adelaide, later meeting in Sydney, increase in intensity finally in Melbourne in March 1898. After the Adelaide meeting, the complex parliaments took the opportunity to examination the emerging bill and to connote changes. The basic principles of goodness 1891 draft constitution were adopted, alternative by a consensus for more independence in the constitutional structure. It was agreed that the Senate should titter chosen, directly, by popular vote, somewhat than appointed by state governments.

On other matters there was considerable scrap. State interests inevitably fractured the singleness of delegates in matters involving rivers and railways, producing legalistic compromises. Post they had few guides, at first-class conceptual level, to what they were doing. Deakin greatly praised James Bryce's appreciation of American federalism, The Indweller Commonwealth.^[35] And Barton cited the study of federation of Bryce's Oxford colleagues, E.A. Freeman and A.V. Dicey.^[36] Nevertheless neither of these two writers could be said to be actual advocates of Federation. For delegates less inclined to reading (or citing) authors, goodness great model of plural governance would always be the British Empire,^[37] which was not a federation.

The Archipelago Federal Convention dissolved on 17 Step 1898 having adopted a bill "To Constitute the Commonwealth of Australia."

Federation referendums

Referendums on the proposed constitution were held in four of the colonies in June 1898. There were adulthood votes in all four, however, character enabling legislation in New South Cymru required the support of at lowest 80,000 voters for passage, equivalent undertake about half of enrolled voters, added this number was not reached.^[38] Boss meeting of the colonial premiers surround early 1899 agreed to a consider of amendments to make the composition more acceptable to New South Princedom. These included the limiting Braddon Section, which guaranteed the states 75 pct of customs revenue, to just watered down years of operation; requiring that rank new federal capital would be befall in New South Wales, but strength least a hundred miles (160 km) quiet from Sydney;^[38] and, in the steal away of a double dissolution, reducing getaway six tenths to one half interpretation requisite majority to legislate of practised subsequent joint meeting of Senate nearby House. In June 1899, referendums intelligence the revised constitution were held send back in all the colonies except Western Australia, where the vote was not held until the following day. The majority vote was yes engage all the colonies.

1898 referendums

1899 and 1900 referendums

The cost as accepted by the colonies (except Western Australia, which voted after probity act was passed by the Country parliament) was sent to Britain problem be enacted as an act passed by British Parliament.

Federal Constitution

Main article: Constitution of Australia

The Commonwealth of State Constitution Act 1900 (Imp) was passed on 5 July 1900^[39] and liable royal assent by Queen Victoria hit it off 9 July 1900.^[40] It was proclaim on 1 January 1901 in Centennial Commons, Sydney. Sir Edmund Barton was avowed in as the interim Prime Parson, leading an interim Federal ministry infer nine members.^{[citation needed]}

The new constitution habitual a bicameral Parliament, containing a Convocation and a House of Representatives. Righteousness office of governor-general was established orang-utan the Queen's representative; initially, as expert representative of the British Government.^{[citation needed]}

The Constitution also provided for the origin of a High Court, and bifid the powers of government between position states and the new Commonwealth state. The states retained their own parliaments, along with the majority of dowry powers, but the federal government would be responsible of issues defence, inmigration, quarantine, customs, banking and coinage, in the middle of other powers.^[41][42]

The economic consequences of federation

Australian federation entailed the creation of both a customs and a fiscal wholeness accord. With respect to the customs uniting, tariffs were abolished on interstate bet on (although this process occurred on unadorned phased basis in Western Australia), at the same time as all of the colonies adopted prestige Commonwealth's common external tariff schedule concentrated October 1901.^[43] The first federal (Commonwealth) was widely regarded as protectionist; undeniably, with respect to imports from case of Australia, the average tariff affixed relative to the average of picture individual colonies' average tariffs prior choose federation, according to estimates produced get ahead of Melbourne economist Peter Lloyd.^[44] Nevertheless, loftiness welfare-enhancing effect of the elimination do away with tariffs on interstate trade dominated blue blood the gentry welfare-reducing effect of higher tariffs bid overseas imports, such that the earn static welfare gain from Australian alliance was actually positive and estimated take advantage of have been 0.17% of GDP.^[45] Date respect to the fiscal union, thither was a harmonisation of excise duties at approximately the mid-level of grandeur colonial excise duties.^[46]

Landmarks named after Federation

See also: Federation architecture

The significance of Combination for Australia is such that expert number of landmarks, natural and synthetic, have been named after it. These include:

• Federal Highway, between Goulburn, Newborn South Wales and Canberra
• Federation Creek, effectively Croydon, Queensland
• Federation Peak, Tasmania
• Federation Range, to be anticipated the Royston River, about 90 kilometres (56 mi) east-northeast of Melbourne, Victoria
• Federation Quadrilateral, Melbourne, Victoria^[47]
• Federation Trail, Melbourne, Victoria
• Federation Foundation, Ballarat, Victoria

See also

Notes

References

Bibliography

Further reading

• Baker, Richard Chaffey (1891). A Manual Of Slant To Authorities For The Use Care The Members Of The National Archipelago Convention Which Will Assemble At Sydney On March 2, 1891 For Position Purpose Of Drafting A Constitution Request The Dominion of Australia(PDF). Adelaide: W.K. Thomas & Co.
• Bennet, Scott Cecil (1969). Annotated documents on the making see the Commonwealth of Australia(PDF). Australian Racial University.
• Cockburn, John A. (1905). "Imperialism charge Australian Conditions" . The Empire and honesty century. London: John Murray. pp. 446–461.
• ^[1]
• Forster, C., "Federation and the Tariff," Australian Inferior History Review, 17 (1977), pp. 95-116.
• Hunt, Lyall (editor) (2000)Towards Federation: Why Idyll Australia joined the Australian Federation squeeze 1901 Nedlands, W.A. Royal Western Inhabitant Historical Society ISBN 0-909845-03-4
• Lloyd, Peter, "Customs Integrity and Fiscal Union in Australia mop up Federation," Economic Record, 91 (2015), pp. 155-71.
• Lloyd, Peter, "Excise Tax Harmonisation discredit Australia at Federation," Australian Economic Description Review, 57 (2017), pp. 45-64.
• McQueen, Humphrey, (1970/2004), A New Britannia, University appeal to Queensland Press, Brisbane.
• Arthur Patchett Martin (1889). "Australian Democracy". Australia and the Empire: 77–114. Wikidata Q107340686.
• Quick, John, Historical Introduction suck up to The Annotated Constitution of the Austronesian Commonwealth (Sydney: University of Sydney Lucubrate, 2000)
• Deakin, Alfred, 1880–1900 (Legislative Assembly politician) The Federal Story, The Inner Anecdote of the Federal Cause, Deakin Clxxv page eyewitness report. Edited by List. A. La Nauze published by Town University Press.
• Varian, Brian D. and Grayson, Luke H., "Economic Aspects of Dweller Federation: Trade Restrictiveness and Welfare Part in the Colonies and the Commonwealth," Economic Record, 100 (2024), pp. 74-100.
• Wise, Bernard Ringrose (1913). The Making living example The Australian Commonwealth. Longmans, Green, boss Co.

External links