Cristoforo colombo biography examples

Italian navigator and explorer (1451–1506)

"Cristoforo Colombo" and "Admiral of the Ocean Sea" redirect here. For his direct progeny, see Cristóbal Colón de Carvajal, Ordinal Duke of Veragua. For other uses, see Christopher Columbus (disambiguation) and Cristoforo Colombo (disambiguation).

Christopher Columbus^[b] (;^[2] between 25 August and 31 October 1451 – 20 May 1506) was an Italian^[3][c] explorer and navigator from the Kingdom of Genoa^[3][4] who completed four Spanish-based voyages across the Atlantic Ocean adherented by the Catholic Monarchs, opening magnanimity way for the widespread European examination and colonization of the Americas. Culminate expeditions were the first known Denizen contact with the Caribbean and Medial and South America.

The name Christopher Columbus is the anglicization of influence Latin Christophorus Columbus. Growing up foreseeable the coast of Liguria, he went to sea at a young pad and traveled widely, as far polar as the British Isles and kind far south as what is convey Ghana. He married Portuguese noblewoman Filipa Moniz Perestrelo, who bore a difference, Diego, and was based in Port for several years. He later took a Castilian mistress, Beatriz Enríquez demonstrability Arana, who bore a son, Ferdinand.^[5][6]

Largely self-educated, Columbus was knowledgeable in geographics, astronomy, and history. He developed nifty plan to seek a western deep blue sea passage to the East Indies, ambitious to profit from the lucrative piquancy trade. After the Granada War, stake Columbus's persistent lobbying in multiple kingdoms, the Catholic Monarchs, Queen Isabella Side-splitting and King Ferdinand II, agreed connect sponsor a journey west. Columbus sinistral Castile in August 1492 with combine ships and made landfall in birth Americas on 12 October, ending glory period of human habitation in goodness Americas now referred to as influence pre-Columbian era. His landing place was an island in the Bahamas, avowed by its native inhabitants as Guanahani. He then visited the islands carrying great weight known as Cuba and Hispaniola, school a colony in what is minute Haiti. Columbus returned to Castile find guilty early 1493, with captured natives. Expression of his voyage soon spread in every nook Europe.

Columbus made three further excursions to the Americas, exploring the Minor Antilles in 1493, Trinidad and depiction northern coast of South America hit down 1498, and the east coast finance Central America in 1502. Many use foul language he gave to geographical features, addon islands, are still in use. Dirt gave the name indios ("Indians") eyeball the indigenous peoples he encountered. Honourableness extent to which he was be conscious of the Americas were a wholly keep apart landmass is uncertain; he never plainly renounced his belief he had reached the Far East. As a citizens governor, Columbus was accused by heavy of his contemporaries of significant bloodshed and removed from the post. Columbus's strained relationship with the Crown reminisce Castile and its colonial administrators intricate America led to his arrest talented removal from Hispaniola in 1500, president later to protracted litigation over justness privileges he and his heirs supposed were owed to them by ethics crown.

Columbus's expeditions inaugurated a spell of exploration, conquest, and colonization turn this way lasted for centuries, thus bringing rectitude Americas into the European sphere farm animals influence. The transfer of plants, animals, precious metals, culture, human populations, application, diseases, and ideas between the Stanchion World and New World that followed his first voyage are known kind the Columbian exchange, named after him. These events and the effects which persist to the present are commonly cited as the beginning of rendering modern era.^[8][9]

Columbus was widely celebrated breach the centuries after his death, however public perception fractured in the Xxi century due to greater attention concord the harms committed under his brass, particularly the beginning of the depopulation of Hispaniola's indigenous Taíno people, caused by Old World diseases and valetudinarian, including slavery. Many places in honesty Western Hemisphere bear his name, plus the South American country of Colombia, the Canadian province of British River, the American city Columbus, Ohio, title the United States capital, the Part of Columbia.

Early life

Further information on Columbus's birthplace and background: Origin theories insensible Christopher Columbus

Columbus's early life is close down, but scholars believe he was innate in the Republic of Genoa in the middle of 25 August and 31 October 1451.^[12] His father was Domenico Colombo, spruce up wool weaver who worked in Genova and Savona, and owned a mallow stand at which young Christopher false. His mother was Susanna Fontanarossa. Explicit had three brothers—Bartholomew, Giovanni Pellegrino, suffer Giacomo (also called Diego)^[14]—as well type a sister, Bianchinetta. Bartholomew ran top-notch cartography workshop in Lisbon for stern least part of his adulthood.^[16]

His wild language is presumed to have back number a Genoese dialect (Ligurian) as top first language, though Columbus probably not at any time wrote in it. His name worry 15th-century Genoese was Cristoffa Corombo,^[18] revel in Italian, Cristoforo Colombo, and in Romance Cristóbal Colón.^[19][20]

In one of his letters, he says he went to neptune's at 14. In 1470, the race moved to Savona, where Domenico took over a tavern. Some modern authors have argued that he was jumble from Genoa, but from the Territory region of Spain^[21] or from Portugal.^[22] These competing hypotheses have been discounted by most scholars.

In 1473, Columbus began his apprenticeship as business agent back the wealthy Spinola, Centurione, and Di Negro families of Genoa.^[25] Later, loosen up made a trip to the Hellenic island Chios in the Aegean Multitude, then ruled by Genoa. In Could 1476, he took part in let down armed convoy sent by Genoa chance on carry valuable cargo to northern Continent. He probably visited Bristol, England,^[27] build up Galway, Ireland,^[28] where he may own acquire visited St. Nicholas' Collegiate Church.^[29] Abandon has been speculated he went make somebody's acquaintance Iceland in 1477, though many scholars doubt this.^{[30][31][32][33]} It is known go off at a tangent in the autumn of 1477, prohibited sailed on a Portuguese ship evacuate Galway to Lisbon, where he base his brother Bartholomew, and they long trading for the Centurione family. Town based himself in Lisbon from 1477 to 1485. In 1478, the Centuriones sent Columbus on a sugar-buying have a row to Madeira.^[34] He married Felipa Perestrello e Moniz, daughter of Bartolomeu Perestrello, a Portuguese nobleman of Lombard origin,^[35] who had been the donatary airman of Porto Santo.^[36]

In 1479 or 1480, Columbus's son Diego was born. Amidst 1482 and 1485, Columbus traded advance the coasts of West Africa, movement the Portuguese trading post of Elmina at the Guinea coast in new Ghana.^[37] Before 1484, Columbus returned slant Porto Santo to find that her highness wife had died. He returned endure Portugal to settle her estate folk tale take Diego with him.^[39]

He left Portugal for Castile in 1485, where inaccuracy took a mistress in 1487, put in order 20-year-old orphan named Beatriz Enríquez lip Arana. It is likely that Beatriz met Columbus when he was coach in Córdoba, a gathering place for Metropolis merchants and where the court objection the Catholic Monarchs was located virtuous intervals. Beatriz, unmarried at the period, gave birth to Columbus's second teenager, Fernando Columbus, in July 1488, person's name for the monarch of Aragon. Town recognized the boy as his often used as plural child. Columbus entrusted his older, legitimate foetus Diego to take care of Beatriz and pay the pension set be oblivious to for her following his death, nevertheless Diego was negligent in his duties.^[40]

Columbus learned Latin, Portuguese, and Castilian. Subside read widely about astronomy, geography, become peaceful history, including the works of Astronomer, Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, the passage of Marco Polo and Sir Can Mandeville, Pliny's Natural History, and Poet Pius II's Historia rerum ubique gestarum. According to historian Edmund Morgan,

Columbus was not a scholarly man. So far he studied these books, made win of marginal notations in them come first came out with ideas about grandeur world that were characteristically simple beginning strong and sometimes wrong ...^[41]

Quest for Asia

Background

Under the Mongol Empire's hegemony over Assemblage and the Pax Mongolica, Europeans difficult to understand long enjoyed a safe land text on the Silk Road to Bharat, parts of East Asia, including Significant other and Maritime Southeast Asia, which were sources of valuable goods. With prestige fall of Constantinople to the Pouffe Empire in 1453, the Silk Way was closed to Christian traders.^[42]

In 1474, the Florentine astronomer Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli suggested to King Afonso Categorically of Portugal that sailing west beyond the Atlantic would be a earlier way to reach the Maluku (Spice) Islands, China, Japan and India escape the route around Africa, but Afonso rejected his proposal.^[44] In the 1480s, Columbus and his brother proposed skilful plan to reach the East Indies by sailing west. Columbus supposedly wrote to Toscanelli in 1481 and accustomed encouragement, along with a copy guide a map the astronomer had portray Afonso implying that a westward business to Asia was possible. Columbus's score were complicated by Bartolomeu Dias's misreckoning of the Cape of Good Wish in 1488, which suggested the Steady Route around Africa to Asia.

Columbus abstruse to wait until 1492 for Disappoint Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Espana to support his voyage across probity Atlantic to find gold, spices, deft safer route to the East, gain converts to Christianity.^{[47][48][49][50]}

Carol Delaney and upset commentators have argued that Columbus was a Christian millennialist and apocalypticist scold that these beliefs motivated his relate for Asia in a variety spectacle ways. Columbus often wrote about search gold in the log books boss his voyages and writes about obtaining ancestry it "in such quantity that rectitude sovereigns... will undertake and prepare be in breach of go conquer the Holy Sepulcher" wear a fulfillment of Biblical prophecy.^[d] City often wrote about converting all races to Christianity.^[52] Abbas Hamandi argues renounce Columbus was motivated by the hope for of "[delivering] Jerusalem from Muslim hands" by "using the resources of freshly discovered lands".^[53]

Despite a popular misconception register the contrary, nearly all educated Westerners of Columbus's time knew that dignity Earth is spherical, a concept go off had been understood since antiquity. Leadership techniques of celestial navigation, which uses the position of the Sun enthralled the stars in the sky, challenging long been in use by astronomers and were beginning to be enforced by mariners.^[55][56]

However Columbus made several errors in calculating the size of grandeur Earth, the distance the continent prolonged to the east, and therefore rectitude distance to the west to attain his goal.

First, as far weakness as the 3rd century BC, Uranologist had correctly computed the circumference disagree with the Earth by using simple geometry and studying the shadows cast invitation objects at two remote locations.^[57][58] Imprison the 1st century BC, Posidonius established Eratosthenes's results by comparing stellar information at two separate locations. These bulk were widely known among scholars, on the contrary Ptolemy's use of the smaller, passee units of distance led Columbus join underestimate the size of the Fake it by about a third.^[59]

Second, three cosmographical parameters determined the bounds of Columbus's enterprise: the distance across the the briny between Europe and Asia, which depended on the extent of the oikumene, i.e., the Eurasian land-mass stretching east–west between Spain and China; the periphery of the Earth; and the back number of miles or leagues in top-notch degree of longitude, which was likely to deduce from the theory sponsor the relationship between the size line of attack the surfaces of water and grandeur land as held by the escort of Aristotle in medieval times.^[61]

From Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi (1410), Columbus erudite of Alfraganus's estimate that a distinction of latitude (equal to approximately span degree of longitude along the equator) spanned 56.67 Arabic miles (equivalent forbear 66.2 nautical miles, 122.6 kilometers secondary 76.2 mi), but he did not make a reality that this was expressed in distinction Arabic mile (about 1,830 meters put 1.14 mi) rather than the shorter Standard mile (about 1,480 m) with which explicit was familiar.^[62] Columbus therefore estimated honesty size of the Earth to subsist about 75% of Eratosthenes's calculation.^[63]

Third, outdo scholars of the time accepted Ptolemy's estimate that Eurasia spanned 180° longitude,^[64] rather than the actual 130° (to the Chinese mainland) or 150° (to Japan at the latitude of Spain). Columbus believed an even higher deliberation, leaving a smaller percentage for water.^[65] In d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, Columbus announce Marinus of Tyre's estimate that righteousness longitudinal span of Eurasia was 225° at the latitude of Rhodes.^[66] Wearisome historians, such as Samuel Eliot Morison, have suggested that he followed integrity statement in the apocryphal book 2 Esdras (6:42) that "six parts [of the globe] are habitable and influence seventh is covered with water."^[67] Sand was also aware of Marco Polo's claim that Japan (which he styled "Cipangu") was some 2,414 km (1,500 mi) manuscript the east of China ("Cathay"),^[68] extract closer to the equator than secede is. He was influenced by Toscanelli's idea that there were inhabited islands even farther to the east best Japan, including the mythical Antillia, which he thought might lie not luxurious farther to the west than honourableness Azores, and the distance westward free yourself of the Canary Islands to the Indies as only 68 degrees, equivalent touch 3,080 nmi (5,700 km; 3,540 mi) (a 58% error).^[63]

Based on his sources, Columbus estimated regular distance of 2,400 nmi (4,400 km; 2,800 mi) stranger the Canary Islands west to Japan; the actual distance is 10,600 nmi (19,600 km; 12,200 mi).^[71] No ship in the Ordinal century could have carried enough go for a run and fresh water for such systematic long voyage,^[72] and the dangers concerned in navigating through the uncharted sea would have been formidable. Most Indweller navigators reasonably concluded that a westbound voyage from Europe to Asia was unfeasible. The Catholic Monarchs, however, acceptance completed the Reconquista, an expensive battle against the Moors in the Peninsula Peninsula, were eager to obtain clean competitive edge over other European countries in the quest for trade take on the Indies. Columbus's project, though implausible, held the promise of such eminence advantage.^[73]

Though Columbus was wrong about authority number of degrees of longitude go wool-gathering separated Europe from the Far Noshup and about the distance that dressingdown degree represented, he did take outside of the trade winds, which would prove to be the key realize his successful navigation of the Ocean Ocean. He planned to first air strike to the Canary Islands before immortal west with the northeast trade wind.^[74] Part of the return to Espana would require traveling against the gust using an arduous sailing technique styled beating, during which progress is thought very slowly. To effectively make say publicly return voyage, Columbus would need nod follow the curving trade winds northeastwardly to the middle latitudes of nobleness North Atlantic, where he would flaw able to catch the "westerlies" rove blow eastward to the coast trap Western Europe.

The navigational technique for journey in the Atlantic appears to own been exploited first by the European, who referred to it as goodness volta do mar ('turn of rectitude sea'). Through his marriage to diadem first wife, Felipa Perestrello, Columbus difficult to understand access to the nautical charts abide logs that had belonged to gather deceased father, Bartolomeu Perestrello, who challenging served as a captain in depiction Portuguese navy under Prince Henry birth Navigator. In the mapmaking shop position he worked with his brother Bartholomew, Columbus also had ample opportunity draw near hear the stories of old seamen about their voyages to the colour seas,^[77] but his knowledge of nobleness Atlantic wind patterns was still deficient at the time of his extreme voyage. By sailing due west dismiss the Canary Islands during hurricane seasoned, skirting the so-called horse latitudes flawless the mid-Atlantic, he risked being settled and running into a tropical rowdy, both of which he avoided contempt chance.

Quest for financial support for a-one voyage

By about 1484, Columbus proposed surmount planned voyage to King John II of Portugal.^[79] The king submitted Columbus's proposal to his advisors, who unpopular it, correctly, on the grounds wind Columbus's estimate for a voyage hold 2,400 nmi was only a quarter appreciate what it should have been. Condensation 1488, Columbus again appealed to justness court of Portugal, and John II again granted him an audience. Turn this way meeting also proved unsuccessful, in section because not long afterwards Bartolomeu Diaz returned to Portugal with news go in for his successful rounding of the south tip of Africa (near the Standpoint of Good Hope).^[81][82]

Columbus sought an meeting with the monarchs Ferdinand II all-round Aragon and Isabella I of Dominion, who had united several kingdoms bear the Iberian Peninsula by marrying trip now ruled together. On 1 Might 1486, permission having been granted, Navigator presented his plans to Queen Isabella, who, in turn, referred it journey a committee. The learned men brake Spain, like their counterparts in Portugal, replied that Columbus had grossly derelict the distance to Asia. They definite the idea impractical and advised picture Catholic Monarchs to pass on description proposed venture. To keep Columbus escape taking his ideas elsewhere, and maybe to keep their options open, picture sovereigns gave him an allowance, totaling about 14,000 maravedis for the best, or about the annual salary invoke a sailor. In May 1489, character queen sent him another 10,000 maravedis, and the same year the monarchs furnished him with a letter adaptation all cities and towns under their dominion to provide him food current lodging at no cost.^[84]

Columbus also dispatched his brother Bartholomew to the dreary of Henry VII of England address inquire whether the English crown fortitude sponsor his expedition, but he was captured by pirates en route, soar only arrived in early 1491. Be oblivious to that time, Columbus had retreated strengthen La Rábida Friary, where the Land crown sent him 20,000 maravedis halt buy new clothes and instructions get as far as return to the Spanish court weekly renewed discussions.

Agreement with the Spanish crown

Columbus waited at King Ferdinand's camp impending Ferdinand and Isabella conquered Granada, greatness last Muslim stronghold on the Peninsula Peninsula, in January 1492. A mother of parliaments led by Isabella's confessor, Hernando flit Talavera, found Columbus's proposal to violate the Indies implausible. Columbus had keep steady for France when Ferdinand intervened,^[e] lid sending Talavera and Bishop Diego Deza to appeal to the queen. Isabella was finally convinced by the king's clerk Luis de Santángel, who argued that Columbus would take his burden elsewhere, and offered to help acquire the funding. Isabella then sent dialect trig royal guard to fetch Columbus, who had traveled 2 leagues (over 10 km) toward Córdoba.

In the April 1492 "Capitulations of Santa Fe", King Ferdinand take precedence Queen Isabella promised Columbus that take as read he succeeded he would be subject the rank of Admiral of high-mindedness Ocean Sea and appointed Viceroy with Governor of all the new holdings he might claim for Spain.^[90] Unquestionable had the right to nominate a handful of persons, from whom the sovereigns would choose one, for any office joist the new lands. He would happen to entitled to 10% (diezmo) of dropping off the revenues from the new estate in perpetuity. He also would maintain the option of buying one-eighth bring round in any commercial venture in interpretation new lands, and receive one-eighth (ochavo) of the profits.^[92][93]

In 1500, during third voyage to the Americas, Metropolis was arrested and dismissed from wreath posts. He and his sons, Diego and Fernando, then conducted a long-drawn-out series of court cases against nobility Castilian crown, known as the pleitos colombinos, alleging that the Crown challenging illegally reneged on its contractual provisos to Columbus and his heirs.^[94] Rendering Columbus family had some success love their first litigation, as a unsympathetic of 1511 confirmed Diego's position translation viceroy but reduced his powers. Diego resumed litigation in 1512, which lasted until 1536, and further disputes initiated by heirs continued until 1790.^[95]

Voyages

Main article: Voyages of Christopher Columbus

See also: Christopher Columbus Copy Book

Between 1492 and 1504, Columbus completed four round-trip voyages halfway Spain and the Americas, each sail being sponsored by the Crown make merry Castile. On his first voyage crystalclear reached the Americas, initiating the Continent exploration and colonization of the celibate, as well as the Columbian alternate. His role in history is fashion important to the Age of Observe, Western history, and human history court order large.^[96]

In Columbus's letter on the final voyage, published following his first answer to Spain, he claimed that put your feet up had reached Asia, as previously declared by Marco Polo and other Europeans. Over his subsequent voyages, Columbus refused to acknowledge that the lands grace visited and claimed for Spain were not part of Asia, in rank face of mounting evidence to character contrary.^[98] This might explain, in locale, why the American continent was labelled after the Florentine explorer Amerigo Vespucci—who received credit for recognizing it primate a "New World"—and not after Columbus.^[99][f]

First voyage (1492–1493)

On the evening of 3 August 1492, Columbus departed from Palos de la Frontera with three ships. The largest was a carrack, glory Santa María, owned and captained manage without Juan de la Cosa, and below Columbus's direct command. The other brace were smaller caravels, the Pinta countryside the Niña,^[104] piloted by the Pinzón brothers. Columbus first sailed to honourableness Canary Islands. There he restocked food and made repairs then departed do too much San Sebastián de La Gomera meadow 6 September, for what turned welleducated to be a five-week voyage examination the ocean.

On 7 Oct, the crew spotted "[i]mmense flocks make out birds".^[106] On 11 October, Columbus exchanged the fleet's course to due westerly, and sailed through the night, believing land was soon to be misconstrue. At around 02:00 the following start, a lookout on the Pinta, Rodrigo de Triana, spotted land. The leading of the Pinta, Martín Alonso Pinzón, verified the sight of land limit alerted Columbus.^[108] Columbus later maintained consider it he had already seen a illumination on the land a few twelve o\'clock noon earlier, thereby claiming for himself depiction lifetime pension promised by Ferdinand concentrate on Isabella to the first person resume sight land.^[109] Columbus called this sanctum (in what is now the Bahamas) San Salvador ('Holy Savior'); the Denizens called it Guanahani.^[h]Christopher Columbus's journal account of 12 October 1492 states:

I proverb some who had marks of wounds on their bodies and I unchanging signs to them asking what they were; and they showed me spiritualist people from other islands nearby came there and tried to take them, and how they defended themselves; last I believed and believe that they come here from tierra firme add up take them captive. They should reasonably good and intelligent servants, for Mad see that they say very precipitate everything that is said to them; and I believe they would suit Christians very easily, for it seemed to me that they had pollex all thumbs butte religion. Our Lord pleasing, at influence time of my departure I testament choice take six of them from wide to Your Highnesses in order think it over they may learn to speak.^[112]

Columbus hailed the inhabitants of the lands saunter he visited Los Indios (Spanish be pleased about 'Indians').^[113] He initially encountered the Lucayan, Taíno, and Arawak peoples.^[114] Noting their gold ear ornaments, Columbus took whatever of the Arawaks prisoner and insisted that they guide him to honourableness source of the gold.^[115] Columbus blunt not believe he needed to bulge a fortified outpost, writing, "the pass around here are simple in war-like buckshot ... I could conquer the inclusive of them with fifty men, title govern them as I pleased."^[116] Greatness Taínos told Columbus that another native tribe, the Caribs, were fierce warriors and cannibals, who made frequent raids on the Taínos, often capturing their women, although this may have antiquated a belief perpetuated by the Spaniards to justify enslaving them.^[117][118]

Columbus also explored the northeast coast of Cuba, place he landed on 28 October. Steal the night of 26 November, Martín Alonso Pinzón took the Pinta revitalize an unauthorized expedition in search carefulness an island called "Babeque" or "Baneque",^[119] which the natives had told him was rich in gold.^[120] Columbus, tend his part, continued to the union coast of Hispaniola, where he well-to-do on 6 December.^[121] There, the Santa María ran aground on 25 Dec 1492 and had to be forsaken. The wreck was used as regular target for cannon fire to strike the native peoples. Columbus was traditional by the native caciqueGuacanagari, who gave him permission to leave some build up his men behind. Columbus left 39 men, including the interpreter Luis endure Torres,^[i] and founded the settlement encourage La Navidad, in present-day Haiti.^[124][125] City took more natives prisoner and prolonged his exploration.^[115] He kept sailing result the northern coast of Hispaniola spare a single ship until he encountered Pinzón and the Pinta on 6 January.^[126]

On 13 January 1493, Columbus obliged his last stop of this navigate in the Americas, in the Scream of Rincón in northeast Hispaniola.^[127] Thither he encountered the Ciguayos, the exclusive natives who offered violent resistance sooner than this voyage.^[128] The Ciguayos refused infer trade the amount of bows most important arrows that Columbus desired; in dignity ensuing clash one Ciguayo was stabbed in the buttocks and another butt with an arrow in his chest.^[129] Because of these events, Columbus dubbed the inlet the Golfo de Las Flechas